Barbara Armbruster

Résumé:
Les architectures en pierre du mégalithisme sénégambien ont longtemps été considérées comme une entité autonome sur une partie du continent africain qui, traditionnellement, privilégie plutôt les constructions en terre crue. Nos connaissances sur ces monuments furent profondément modifiées par dix ans de recherches archéologiques sur la nécropole mégalithique de Wanar (Sénégal), classée au titre du patrimoine mondial de l’humanité. Cet article a pour objet de replacer ces découvertes dans leur contexte régional, intégrant alors les données disponibles sur les monuments funéraires d’époques protohistoriques au Sénégal comme au Mali, en Guinée, en Guinée-Bissau, au Libéria et en Sierra Leone, voire parfois plus largement encore. Les auteurs ont montré d’une manière plus systématique que dans les travaux antérieurs – que plusieurs des caractéristiques des rites funéraires sénégambiens peuvent trouver écho dans l’ethnologie de l’Afrique de l’Ouest.
Mots-clés : Afrique de l’Ouest, Sénégal, Gambie, mégalithisme, pratiques funéraires, hypogée, monuments funéraires, tumulus, sépulture

Abstract:
Stone architectures of the Senegambian megalithism have long been considered as an autonomous entity in a sector of the African continent
where adobe constructions are traditionally favoured. Our knowledge of these monuments has been deeply modified by ten years of archaeological
research on the World Heritage site of Wanar (Senegal). This paper review these new elements in their regional context, integrating available data about protohistoric funerary monuments in Senegal as well as in Mali, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Sierra Leone and even sometimes more widely. The authors have demonstrated – in a more systematic way than in previous work – that several features of the Senegambian funerary customs can find an echo in the West African ethnological
record.
Keywords: West Africa, Senegal, Gambia, Megaliths, Sepulchral practices, Funerary monument, tumulus, burial.

À la mosaïque de peuples « barbares » qui formaient la Gaule, les Romains comme les Grecs attribuaient un point commun : le goût de l’or. Les sources antiques décrivent à l’excès leur inextinguible soif pour ce métal précieux et leurs immenses richesses en or. La Gaule, présentée comme un « eldorado », aiguisa ainsi les appétits de conquêtes commerciales puis militaires. Mais qu’en était-il réellement ? Aujourd’hui, l’archéologie permet d’examiner sous un autre jour les rapports complexes qu’entretenaient les Gaulois et les Celtes avec l’or, et offre le recul nécessaire à l’examen critique des témoignages antiques.

The social role of craftspeople or artisans, and especially of metalworkers, in the society of the Varna population has been a matter of discussion since the site was introduced to the scientific community (Renfrew, 1978; Lichardus, 1988; Marazov, 1988; Chapman, Higham, et al. 2006). It was regarded as common sense to assess metallurgy as the decisive impetus for the increasing social complexity that became evident during the Copper Age in the Balkans (Todorova, 1981; Todorova, 1999). Hitherto, the cemetery Varna I has been regarded as the apogee of this development and as the first record of a hierarchical society. But what was the role of metallurgy, and more precisely of metallurgists and artisans, within these social dynamics? The most recent collaboration between German and Bulgarian institutions yielded new data from the site of Varna and provides a complete analytical account not only of metallurgical and anthropological results, but also of almost the entire
archaeological assemblage. This article outlines important results of these investigations that challenge the hypothesis of the outstanding role of metalworking within the social dynamics.

Starting from the topographic study and the elemental analysis of four gold objects from Fortios, we define a little-known type of gold object and survey all examples known to date. It is important to select the appropriate analytical technique depending on the problem to be solved and in order to obtain reliable results. In our particular case this allowed us to detect a brazing procedure using a solder of a lower melting point than the parts to be joined. Comparing analytical data from other, similar
objects permitted the reconstruction of their technological domain, which is clearly Mediterranean. Finally the archaeological context, between the 8th and 7th centuries BC, and the particular character of the workshop point to a craft production belonging to the Orientalizing period of Southwestern Iberia.

This paper aims to present a general picture of trends in production and use of
archaic jewellery in the West of the Iberian Peninsula, and a thorough discussion
of its main lines of development, trying to make a systematic presentation of
jewellery known in Portugal from Prehistory to the Roman period.
Technical and stylistic, chronological and socio‑cultural
issues and questions
about its wider archaeological framework are discussed in that context.

This paper discusses the invention of gold metallurgy within the Southeast European
Chalcolithic on the basis of newly investigated gold objects from the Varna I cemetery
(4550–4450 cal. bc). Comprehensive analyses, including preceding gold finds, shed new
light not only on the technical expertise of the so far earliest known fine metalworkers,
but also on the general context and potential prerequisites in which the invention of gold
metallurgymay be embedded. Here, these structural trajectories as well as the unprecedented
inventions connected to this early gold working will be highlighted in order to contextualize
the apparently sudden appearance and rapid development of this new craft.

ABSTRACT The Lebrija (Seville) hoard, made up of six identical objects, was thought to be unique in its kind until a new specimen came out of the antiquities market, repeating .the morphology and the fabrication technique of the so called candelabra. We have completed a technological, functional and symbolic study, as well as the elemental analysis of the objects by PIXE. In our opinion they were all manufactured by local people at the beginning of the interaction between Phoenicians and Tartesians during the 8th century B. C. Concerning their function, we cannot accept the interpretation as incense burners any more; we prefer to think of them as aniconic representations of the divinity following phoenician mythology.El depósito de Lebrija (Sevilla) compuesto por seis objetos iguales se creía único en su género hasta la aparición en el mercado de antigüedades de un nuevo ejemplar que repite la morfología y técnica de fabricación de estos llamados candelabros. Hemos estudiado los siete ejemplares desde el punto de vista tecnológico, funcional y simbólico, además de realizar análisis de composición mediante el método PlXE. Creemos que se trata de una serie de piezas de fabricación indígena en los primeros momentos de contacto entre fenicios y tartésicos, hacia el siglo VIlI a.C. En cuanto a su funcionalidad, no se puede seguir aceptando su interpretación como incensarios, sino que fueron la representación anicónica de la divinidad según la mitología fenicia.

Excavations of two Iron Age cultic sites at Bithnah and
Masāfī (Fujairah, United Arab Emirates) have provided
data documenting cultic rituals dedicated to a divinity
represented as a snake practised by south-eastern Arabian
populations during the Iron Age (1200-300 BC). On the
basis of archaeological data as well as of fi rst results
obtained by chemical studies, a possible connection
between the attributions of the deity represented by the
snake and the regional economic background, in which
copper and water might have played a major rule is
discussed by the authors.

This paper deals with goldworking technology, more precisely with the manufacturing processes and tools used in Atlantic Europe during the Copper Age and the beginning of the Early Bronze Age. It takes an interdisciplinary
approach to the study of the technological aspects of early fine metalworking crafts.
Along with copper, gold was one of the first metals used by early metallurgists. Atlantic Europe is rich in gold artefacts attesting to the use of particular types of ornaments, from southern Portugal up to the north of Scotland. Precious metal objects are valuable goods with symbolic meaning used in rituals as well as in funerary contexts. They also had an important social function for gift exchange between elites and for demonstration of power. Gold artefacts can indicate cultural contact leading to the exchange of technological and artistic knowhow.
One purpose of this paper is to investigate the traces of exchange and circulation processes in the
archaeological record so as to be able to reconstruct the goldworking craftsmanship of the past.
The second purpose is to present an interdisciplinary approach to the analysis and definition of the early art of goldworking. Finally, the role of metal technology in tradition, innovation, contact and cultural change for understanding of early metal-using societies will be discussed.

Luxury objects are an important part of European Iron Age material culture. This is reflected in personal ornaments, decorated weapons, vessels, wagons and furniture, etc. This session deals with materials such as gold, silver, bronze, enamel, and glass as well as organic materials, such as ivory, coral, amber, and jet. These luxury materials played an important role in social, religious, economic and artistic terms that we would like to discuss. Our session offers the opportunity to compare the trade and exchange systems of different precious materials in diverse parts of Europe. As different as the materials are, as unequal is their value. Hence, different raw materials have been accessible for different social groups; this is why the distribution patterns of different raw materials allow us to establish a more detailed reconstruction of the economic systems during a certain period and to trace the chronological dynamics in this context. Moreover, since raw materials are always closely interrelated with networks of production and consumption, their distribution patterns and dynamics enable profound insights into the circulation of the ideas and people behind the materials. Our aim is to bring together research dealing with different aspects of these prestigious materials and objects combining social anthropology, archaeological context, style, arts and crafts, technology and archaeometry. Therefore, we invite contributions concerned with interdisciplinary approaches to precious materials and fine metal work. We kindly invite you to submit your abstract for the session at

TRADITION, INNOVATION AND NETWORKS - METAL WORKING AROUND THE BALTIC SEA FROM THE BRONZE AGE TO THE MIDDLE AGES

From the rock carvings depicting ships in the Scandinavian Bronze Age to the age of the Hanseatic League and its mighty cargo ships, the Baltic Sea has always played an important role as a travel zone, facilitating interregional contacts and dissemination of cultural and technological knowledge. The study of metallurgical practices is indicative of the spread of innovation and the movement of craftsmen, and therefore not only shows the movement of goods but also the transfer of new ideas and the dissemination of people. Prehistoric and medieval production of metals in the Baltic Sea region demonstrates both shared practices and discrete traditions, making it central for our understanding of cultural relations and networks within this area.

This session aims to bring together archaeologists and archaeometallurgists exploring the traditions, continuity, and developments of metal crafts through external influences and innovation from the Bronze Age to the medieval period around the Baltic Sea. The focus will be on the history of technology and traditions of metal production, including aspects of metal working techniques, utilization of tools, and the layout and “chaine operatoire” of workshops. The interdisciplinary nature of the session will encourage discussions between cultural-historical approaches, experimental and archaeometric studies, to enrich our understanding of technological practices and to explore how metals, technologies and traditions were spread and shared within the region.

Cette journée d'étude sera consacrée aux approches expérimentales en lien avec les arts du feu. Elle a pour objectif de présenter différents travaux dont la démarche consiste à mettre en perspective l'étude des objets archéologiques avec l'artisanat du métal, du verre ou de la céramique.

Gold from the Western Hallstatt zone, including eastern and central France, southwest Germany and Switzerland, was included in several detailed regional Iron Age studies in the past; however, research was rarely focussed on the specific gold material itself and no systematic inventory or database existed. Since A. Hartmann’s pioneering studies on the chemical composition of prehistoric gold objects, which he conducted between 1960 to 1985 and some individual investigations into their production technology or composition, no large scale systematic scientific investigation on gold from the West Hallstatt period has been conducted.

Social stratification in prehistoric societies has long been a major research topic. Especially the beginning of the Bronze Age world with a rapidly increasing hierarchization was and still is the focus of many of archaeological studies. Much research has been done in finding traces and evidences for the existence of the first state-like organisations in Central Europe. Most obviously the so-called princely graves of the Únětice culture represent people that gathered and inherited a lot of power and wealth. But those narratives of chiefdoms and early state societies portray only one of the possibilities within the diverse Early Bronze Age landscape and its different social structures. The task is to identify hierarchical structures also in those regions or contemporary societies without clearly visible archaeological signs of chieftains or other highly stratified systems.
The session will concentrate on the Early Bronze Age (2200–1650 BC) roughly between the alpine lake dwellings, the southern alpine villages, the Únětice culture and the Tell building societies of the Carpathian Basin. One major focus is gaining knowledge about social stratification from a combined investigation of settlement structures (centralization, fortification, large-scale food storage etc.), burial practices and hoard find patterns to identify different types of hierarchies. New scientific methods (aDNA, isotope analyses, metal analyses etc.) can help to uncover so far hidden social patterns by adding more information about kinship, mobility and trade management and can thus explain the emergence, maintenance and extension of hierarchical structures.

Program Book: https://www.e-a-a.org/EAA2019/Programme.aspx?WebsiteKey=92bb0c7f-79c0-4998-9804-b5db83f9a8b9&hkey=48f0a584-1ae8-4680-bcef-572c6fe82598&Program=3#Program

9 et 10 octobre 2019 - Toulouse (Université Jean Jaurès)
Par des regards croisés sur les métaux anciens, l'archéométallurgie combine sciences des matériaux, approche technologique et étude archéologique. Comme son nom l'indique, cette journée d'étude a pour objectif de faire dialoguer les différents spécialistes de la métallurgie ancienne. Pour réellement comprendre les objets archéologiques, il est en effet nécessaire de les replacer non seulement dans une chaîne opératoire qui est complexe, depuis l'approvisionnement en matières premières jusqu'à leur abandon, mais aussi dans un environnement humain. Si les archéomètres se concentrent essentiellement sur l'approvisionnement en matières premières, sur la nature et les propriétés des archéomatériaux métalliques, les archéologues se chargent de replacer les artefacts dans leur contexte socio-économique et symbolique. L'étude technologique se positionne comme une charnière entre ces disciplines, révélant les savoir-faire des artisans/artistes. Les intervenants de ces différentes disciplines peinent parfois à échanger du fait de méthodes, de formations et d'interrogations différentes. C'est pourquoi les méthodes et approches des uns et des autres doivent nécessairement être combinées afin de progresser. Par cette transversalité, l'origine, les contraintes et l'histoire des matériaux peuvent être restitués tout autant que certains mécanismes socio-économiques, techniques et culturels des sociétés anciennes, point d'entrée fondamental pour aborder des questions concernant par exemple les choix des matériaux, les recettes des alliages, les modes de production ou encore les ruptures et continuités dans les réseaux d'approvisionnement et d'échanges. C'est pourquoi nous souhaitons mettre en avant toute la pertinence de cette démarche interdisciplinaire, à travers la présentation de quelques dossiers qui doivent permettre à des spécialistes de l'archéométallurgie de dialoguer autour de problématiques et de démarches scientifiques communes. Une précédente journée d'étude, co-organisée autour d'une approche comparable, avait porté sur le fer. Cette fois-ci, le propos sera centré sur les métaux non-ferreux : or, cuivre et alliages cuivreux, plomb. Ces dialogues prendront la forme d'études de cas présentées au moins à deux voix et auront pour objectif de faire le point sur un panel de questions : que pouvons-nous à ce jour faire dire à un objet en métal étudié tout à la fois dans son contexte archéologique et en laboratoire ? Quelles peuvent-être les attentes des archéologues et des archéomètres lorsqu'ils mettent en commun leurs compétences ? Quels résultats obtient-on d'un tel dialogue ? Cette manifestation scientifique sera résolument placée sous le signe de l'interdisciplinarité, terme trop souvent galvaudé qu'il s'agira ici de réhabiliter.